Still
A still is an apparatus used to distill miscible or immiscible (eg. steam distillation) liquid mixtures by heating to selectively boil and then cooling to condense the vapor. Stills have been used to produce perfume and medicine, Water for Injection (WFI) for pharmaceutical use, generally to separate and purify different chemicals, and most famously, to produce distilled beverages containing ethyl alcohol.
Application
Main article: distilled beverage
Swan necked copper stills in the Glenfiddich distillery.
Since ethyl alcohol boils at a lower temperature than water, a common application of the process of distillation is to produce strong alcoholic drinks. Usually a still used for this purpose is made of copper, since it removes sulfur-based compounds from the alcohol that would make it unpleasant to drink. Modern stills are made of stainless steel with copper innards (piping, for example, will be lagged with copper along with copper plate inlays along still walls). Using this combination of metals is much cheaper as it prevents erosion of the entire vessel and lowers copper levels in the waste product (which in large distilleries is processed to become animal feed). All copper stills will require repairs about every 8 years because of copper erosion from the compounds it is designed to remove; this erosion is therefore unavoidable. The alcohol industry was the first to use anything close to a modern distillation apparatus and led the way in developing what is now a large part of the chemical industry.
The simplest standard distillation apparatus is commonly known as a pot still, consisting of a single heated chamber and a vessel to collect purified alcohol. A pot still incorporates only one condensation, whereas other types of distillation equipment have multiple stages which result in higher purification of the more volatile component (alcohol). Pot still distillation gives an incomplete separation, but this can be desirable for the flavor of some distilled beverages.
If a purer distillate is desired, a reflux still is the most common solution. Reflux stills incorporate a fractionating column, commonly created by filling copper vessels with glass beads to maximize available surface area. As alcohol boils, condenses, and reboils through the column, the effective number of distillations greatly increases. Vodka and rum are both distilled by this method, then diluted to concentrations appropriate for human consumption.
Alcoholic products from home distilleries is common throughout the world, but is sometimes in violation of local statutes. The product of illegal stills in the United States is commonly referred to as moonshine.
See also
* Distillation
o Retort
o Alembic
o Column still
o Pot still
o Reflux still
o Solar still
Monday, May 19, 2008
Wednesday, April 16, 2008
The Maoists left the interim government on 18 September 2007, citing the non-fulfilment of their demands (which included declaration of a republic before the elections). They stated they would launch street protests in favour of a republic and to ensure the elections will be held, but keep to the ceasefire. The Prime Minister stated that declaring a republic through the interim parliament would lack legitimacy. According to some analysts, the Maoists are worried that they lack support and are trying to avoid suffering an embarrassing election defeat at the polls
On 26 September 2007, the Nepali Congress abandoned its tacit support for constitutional monarchy and called on the Constituent Assembly to call for the monarch's abdication.The nomination deadline was extended on 30 September 2007 upon the request of the Seven Party Alliance.
The United Nations Security Council on 26 October 2007 called for the election to be held before the end of 2007.
An agreement with the United Democratic Madhesi Front was reached on 28 February 2008, thus ending their general strike. The agreement also included a provision increasing the proportion of seats reserved for the Madhesi minority from 20% to 30%.Furthermore, the parties were allowed to file for the election with an additional deadline set; the constituent parties of the United Madhesi Democratic Front (Madhesi Jana Adhikar Forum, Tarai-Madhes Loktantrik Party, Sadbhavana Party) did so, as well as some others (including the Anandisingh Devi-led NSP(A), Nepal Samyabadi Party, Rastriya Janashakti Party – who had stated they would boycott the election unless the Madhesi issue was resolved –, Nawa Janabadi Morcha, Nepal Rastriya Janabhavana Party, Rastriya Bikas Party and Rastrabadi Yuba Morcha)
On 26 September 2007, the Nepali Congress abandoned its tacit support for constitutional monarchy and called on the Constituent Assembly to call for the monarch's abdication.The nomination deadline was extended on 30 September 2007 upon the request of the Seven Party Alliance.
The United Nations Security Council on 26 October 2007 called for the election to be held before the end of 2007.
An agreement with the United Democratic Madhesi Front was reached on 28 February 2008, thus ending their general strike. The agreement also included a provision increasing the proportion of seats reserved for the Madhesi minority from 20% to 30%.Furthermore, the parties were allowed to file for the election with an additional deadline set; the constituent parties of the United Madhesi Democratic Front (Madhesi Jana Adhikar Forum, Tarai-Madhes Loktantrik Party, Sadbhavana Party) did so, as well as some others (including the Anandisingh Devi-led NSP(A), Nepal Samyabadi Party, Rastriya Janashakti Party – who had stated they would boycott the election unless the Madhesi issue was resolved –, Nawa Janabadi Morcha, Nepal Rastriya Janabhavana Party, Rastriya Bikas Party and Rastrabadi Yuba Morcha)
An election for a Constituent Assembly was held in Nepal on 10 April 2008after having been postponed from earlier dates of 20 June 2007 and 22 November 2007. This assembly will draft a new constitution. Hence, this will decide amongst others, on the fate of the Nepalese monarchy and federalism. There will be around 17.5 million eligible voters.
The Election Constituency Delimitation Commission recommended the following number and distribution of seats: 240 members would be elected through a proportionate electoral system, 240 members through election in constituencies and 17 on recommendation by the Council of Ministers.
All of the parties have been designated election symbols; for instance, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) have hammer and sickle, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) a sun and the Nepali Congress a tree. The Carter Center was to send 50 short-term election monitors, and the European Union was to send 60 short- and long-term election monitors The second delay, on 5 October 2007, occurred because the Maoists demanded that a republic be declared before the election and that a fully proportional system be used in the election instead of a mixed system.[10] A compromise was agreed to on 4 November: the election would use a fully proportional system, but the republic would only be declared immediately after the Constituent Assembly election.[11]
On November 4, the majority in the interim parliament voted in favour of a Maoist proposal calling for a fully proportional election systemOn 15 December, the government tabled an amendment to the constitution. This amendment moved the deadline for Constituent Assembly elections from 15 December 2007 to 12 April 2008, and changed the membership of the Constituent Assembly: the seats for proportional representation system were increased to 335 and the members nominated by the prime minister were increased to 26 from 17. As specified in the Election to Members of the Constituent Assembly Act (2007)14], party list representation will be calculated using a result divisor method, the Sainte-Laguë method The seats for first-past-the-post elections remained at 240, making the total number 601 seats instead of the earlier 497 The word "republic" was also included, but will have to be confirmed by the Constituent Assembly.The agreement was officially adopted on December 23, 2007 by the government and the Maoists stated they would rejoin the government shortly. The interim parliament approved the deal on December 28, with 270 in favor and three opposed.
The Election Commission gave parties which wished to register for the polls a new deadline of 14 January 2008; parties which had previously registered did not have to re-register On 11 January, the Cabinet decided to hold the election on 10 April.
A group of pro-monarch parties, led by Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal, plan to form a monarchist alliance before the election.Another monarchist alliance, Samyukta Samabeshi Morcha, was also formed before the election.
An estimated 60 percent of the 17.6 million voters casted ballots, many of them lining up before dawn outside the 20,000 polling stations. The election of the 601-seat Constituent Assembly to write a new constitution was touted as the cornerstone of a 2006 peace deal struck with the Maoists-rebels, ending the Nepalese Civil War in 2006 that forced Nepal's king Gyanendra to cede power, which he had seized in the year 2005. The election hold great symbolic value for many in the impoverished Himalayan nation, where 60 percent of the 27 million people are under age 35 and many voted for the first time.
The Election Constituency Delimitation Commission recommended the following number and distribution of seats: 240 members would be elected through a proportionate electoral system, 240 members through election in constituencies and 17 on recommendation by the Council of Ministers.
All of the parties have been designated election symbols; for instance, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) have hammer and sickle, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) a sun and the Nepali Congress a tree. The Carter Center was to send 50 short-term election monitors, and the European Union was to send 60 short- and long-term election monitors The second delay, on 5 October 2007, occurred because the Maoists demanded that a republic be declared before the election and that a fully proportional system be used in the election instead of a mixed system.[10] A compromise was agreed to on 4 November: the election would use a fully proportional system, but the republic would only be declared immediately after the Constituent Assembly election.[11]
On November 4, the majority in the interim parliament voted in favour of a Maoist proposal calling for a fully proportional election systemOn 15 December, the government tabled an amendment to the constitution. This amendment moved the deadline for Constituent Assembly elections from 15 December 2007 to 12 April 2008, and changed the membership of the Constituent Assembly: the seats for proportional representation system were increased to 335 and the members nominated by the prime minister were increased to 26 from 17. As specified in the Election to Members of the Constituent Assembly Act (2007)14], party list representation will be calculated using a result divisor method, the Sainte-Laguë method The seats for first-past-the-post elections remained at 240, making the total number 601 seats instead of the earlier 497 The word "republic" was also included, but will have to be confirmed by the Constituent Assembly.The agreement was officially adopted on December 23, 2007 by the government and the Maoists stated they would rejoin the government shortly. The interim parliament approved the deal on December 28, with 270 in favor and three opposed.
The Election Commission gave parties which wished to register for the polls a new deadline of 14 January 2008; parties which had previously registered did not have to re-register On 11 January, the Cabinet decided to hold the election on 10 April.
A group of pro-monarch parties, led by Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal, plan to form a monarchist alliance before the election.Another monarchist alliance, Samyukta Samabeshi Morcha, was also formed before the election.
An estimated 60 percent of the 17.6 million voters casted ballots, many of them lining up before dawn outside the 20,000 polling stations. The election of the 601-seat Constituent Assembly to write a new constitution was touted as the cornerstone of a 2006 peace deal struck with the Maoists-rebels, ending the Nepalese Civil War in 2006 that forced Nepal's king Gyanendra to cede power, which he had seized in the year 2005. The election hold great symbolic value for many in the impoverished Himalayan nation, where 60 percent of the 27 million people are under age 35 and many voted for the first time.
An election for a Constituent Assembly was held in Nepal on 10 April 2008after having been postponed from earlier dates of 20 June 2007 and 22 November 2007. This assembly will draft a new constitution. Hence, this will decide amongst others, on the fate of the Nepalese monarchy and federalism. There will be around 17.5 million eligible voters.
The Election Constituency Delimitation Commission recommended the following number and distribution of seats: 240 members would be elected through a proportionate electoral system, 240 members through election in constituencies and 17 on recommendation by the Council of Ministers.
All of the parties have been designated election symbols; for instance, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) have hammer and sickle, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) a sun and the Nepali Congress a tree. The Carter Center was to send 50 short-term election monitors, and the European Union was to send 60 short- and long-term election monitors The second delay, on 5 October 2007, occurred because the Maoists demanded that a republic be declared before the election and that a fully proportional system be used in the election instead of a mixed system.[10] A compromise was agreed to on 4 November: the election would use a fully proportional system, but the republic would only be declared immediately after the Constituent Assembly election.[11]
On November 4, the majority in the interim parliament voted in favour of a Maoist proposal calling for a fully proportional election systemOn 15 December, the government tabled an amendment to the constitution. This amendment moved the deadline for Constituent Assembly elections from 15 December 2007 to 12 April 2008, and changed the membership of the Constituent Assembly: the seats for proportional representation system were increased to 335 and the members nominated by the prime minister were increased to 26 from 17. As specified in the Election to Members of the Constituent Assembly Act (2007)14], party list representation will be calculated using a result divisor method, the Sainte-Laguë method The seats for first-past-the-post elections remained at 240, making the total number 601 seats instead of the earlier 497 The word "republic" was also included, but will have to be confirmed by the Constituent Assembly.The agreement was officially adopted on December 23, 2007 by the government and the Maoists stated they would rejoin the government shortly. The interim parliament approved the deal on December 28, with 270 in favor and three opposed.
The Election Commission gave parties which wished to register for the polls a new deadline of 14 January 2008; parties which had previously registered did not have to re-register On 11 January, the Cabinet decided to hold the election on 10 April.
A group of pro-monarch parties, led by Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal, plan to form a monarchist alliance before the election.Another monarchist alliance, Samyukta Samabeshi Morcha, was also formed before the election.
An estimated 60 percent of the 17.6 million voters casted ballots, many of them lining up before dawn outside the 20,000 polling stations. The election of the 601-seat Constituent Assembly to write a new constitution was touted as the cornerstone of a 2006 peace deal struck with the Maoists-rebels, ending the Nepalese Civil War in 2006 that forced Nepal's king Gyanendra to cede power, which he had seized in the year 2005. The election hold great symbolic value for many in the impoverished Himalayan nation, where 60 percent of the 27 million people are under age 35 and many voted for the first time.
The Election Constituency Delimitation Commission recommended the following number and distribution of seats: 240 members would be elected through a proportionate electoral system, 240 members through election in constituencies and 17 on recommendation by the Council of Ministers.
All of the parties have been designated election symbols; for instance, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) have hammer and sickle, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) a sun and the Nepali Congress a tree. The Carter Center was to send 50 short-term election monitors, and the European Union was to send 60 short- and long-term election monitors The second delay, on 5 October 2007, occurred because the Maoists demanded that a republic be declared before the election and that a fully proportional system be used in the election instead of a mixed system.[10] A compromise was agreed to on 4 November: the election would use a fully proportional system, but the republic would only be declared immediately after the Constituent Assembly election.[11]
On November 4, the majority in the interim parliament voted in favour of a Maoist proposal calling for a fully proportional election systemOn 15 December, the government tabled an amendment to the constitution. This amendment moved the deadline for Constituent Assembly elections from 15 December 2007 to 12 April 2008, and changed the membership of the Constituent Assembly: the seats for proportional representation system were increased to 335 and the members nominated by the prime minister were increased to 26 from 17. As specified in the Election to Members of the Constituent Assembly Act (2007)14], party list representation will be calculated using a result divisor method, the Sainte-Laguë method The seats for first-past-the-post elections remained at 240, making the total number 601 seats instead of the earlier 497 The word "republic" was also included, but will have to be confirmed by the Constituent Assembly.The agreement was officially adopted on December 23, 2007 by the government and the Maoists stated they would rejoin the government shortly. The interim parliament approved the deal on December 28, with 270 in favor and three opposed.
The Election Commission gave parties which wished to register for the polls a new deadline of 14 January 2008; parties which had previously registered did not have to re-register On 11 January, the Cabinet decided to hold the election on 10 April.
A group of pro-monarch parties, led by Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal, plan to form a monarchist alliance before the election.Another monarchist alliance, Samyukta Samabeshi Morcha, was also formed before the election.
An estimated 60 percent of the 17.6 million voters casted ballots, many of them lining up before dawn outside the 20,000 polling stations. The election of the 601-seat Constituent Assembly to write a new constitution was touted as the cornerstone of a 2006 peace deal struck with the Maoists-rebels, ending the Nepalese Civil War in 2006 that forced Nepal's king Gyanendra to cede power, which he had seized in the year 2005. The election hold great symbolic value for many in the impoverished Himalayan nation, where 60 percent of the 27 million people are under age 35 and many voted for the first time.
Monday, March 24, 2008
BCCI's founder, Agha Hasan Abedi, started the bank in Pakistan in 1972. Abedi had previously set up the United Bank of Pakistan in 1959. Following the nationalization of United Bank in 1971 he sought to create a new supranational banking entity. BCCI was created with capital from Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, emir of Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates, Bank of America (25%) and, allegedly, the CIA[6]. It is claimed that the CIA were seeking a funding route for the Afghan Mujahideen, similar to the Investors Overseas Service and the Nugan Hand Bank in the 1970s[citation needed]. However, the vast majority of BCCI's assets were initially from Abu Dhabi.
The Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) was a major international bank founded in London, United Kingdom in 1972 by Agha Hasan Abedi, a leading Pakistani financier. The company was registered in Luxembourg. At its peak, it operated in 78 countries, had over 400 branches, and had assets in excess of US$ 20 billion making it the 7th largest bank in the world by assets.[1][2]
BCCI became the focus in 1991 of the world's worst financial scandal and what was called a "$20-billion-plus heist".[3] It was found by regulators in the United States and the United Kingdom to be involved in money laundering
BCCI became the focus in 1991 of the world's worst financial scandal and what was called a "$20-billion-plus heist".[3] It was found by regulators in the United States and the United Kingdom to be involved in money laundering
Thursday, February 28, 2008
Abuses in lending
Abuses in lending
Predatory lending is one form of abuse in the granting of loans. It usually involves granting a loan in order to put the borrower in a position that one can gain advantage over him or her. Where the moneylender is not authorised, it could be considered a loan shark.
Usury is a different form of abuse, where the lender charges excessive interest. In different time periods and cultures the acceptable interest rate has varied, from no interest at all to unlimited interest rates. Credit card companies in some countries have been accused by consumer organisations of lending at usurious interest rates and making money out of frivolous "extra charges
Abuses can also take place in the form of the customer abusing the lender by not repaying the loan or with an intent to defraud the lender.
Predatory lending is one form of abuse in the granting of loans. It usually involves granting a loan in order to put the borrower in a position that one can gain advantage over him or her. Where the moneylender is not authorised, it could be considered a loan shark.
Usury is a different form of abuse, where the lender charges excessive interest. In different time periods and cultures the acceptable interest rate has varied, from no interest at all to unlimited interest rates. Credit card companies in some countries have been accused by consumer organisations of lending at usurious interest rates and making money out of frivolous "extra charges
Abuses can also take place in the form of the customer abusing the lender by not repaying the loan or with an intent to defraud the lender.
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